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Battery Encyclopedia

Everything you want to know about batteries from A to Z, curated by TWAICE experts.

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Anode, cathode, state of health, depth of discharge, end of life - read about the most important battery terms and definitions.

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Battery Cell

Battery Cell Chemistries

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Battery Terminology

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AC (Alternating Current)

Battery Terminology

An electric current that periodically reverses direction, used in power systems and appliances.

Aging model

Battery Modeling

An aging model uses mathematical descriptions of relevant processes that predicts the degradation of lithium-ion batteries over time. It captures the effects of various factors, such as temperature, state of charge, and cycling patterns, on battery life and performance. Aging models typically consider capacity fade and increased internal resistance as primary indicators of battery aging. By predicting the battery's state of health (SoH) and estimating its remaining useful life, aging models help optimize battery management strategies, plan for maintenance or replacement, and improve the overall performance and reliability of battery-powered systems.

Ampere

Battery Terminology

A unit of electric charge, representing the amount of charge transferred by a steady current of one ampere flowing for one hour.

Anode

Battery Cell

Electrode on which oxidation occurs – releases electrons on discharge. Usually made from graphite and binder material. Battery science and industry agreed to call it the “negative” electrode, even though oxidation and reduction process changes from discharge to charge.

Arbitrage

Energy storage

In the energy sector, arbitrage involves buying energy when prices are low and selling it when prices are high. For battery storage systems, this can mean storing energy during off-peak hours when electricity is cheaper and then selling it back to the grid during peak hours at a higher price. This practice can help balance supply and demand, stabilize grid prices, and provide a return on investment for energy storage operators.

Auto-trading

Energy storage

In the context of energy, auto-trading refers to the use of automated systems to buy and sell energy on the market. These systems can use algorithms to analyze market data, predict price trends, and make trades to maximize profits or achieve other goals, such as balancing grid demand.

BMS (battery management system)

Battery Components

A BMS is an electronic system that monitors and manages the performance of a battery pack. It protects the battery from operating outside its safe voltage, temperature, and current limits, ensuring optimal performance and longevity. A BMS also provides critical information on the battery's state of charge, state of health, and other performance parameters.

Battery Cell Side-reactions

Battery Terminology

Unwanted chemical reactions within a battery cell that can degrade materials and reduce overall efficiency and lifespan.

Battery Cooling System

Battery Terminology

A mechanism designed to remove excess heat from a battery pack to prevent overheating and ensure optimal performance.

Battery Fitting Process

Battery Terminology

The procedure of integrating a battery into a system, ensuring optimal compatibility, performance, and safety.

Battery Relaxation

Battery Terminology

The period after charging or discharging during which a battery's internal conditions stabilize and its voltage returns to a steady state.

Battery State Estimation

Battery Modeling

The process of determining key battery parameters (such as e.g. state of charge, health) through algorithms and sensor data.

Battery aging/ degradation

Battery Terminology

This is the process by which a battery gradually loses its performance capabilities over time due to chemical and physical changes in the battery cells. Factors contributing to aging include cycle count, depth of discharge, temperature, and charge rate. Aging can result in reduced energy capacity, power capacity, and efficiency, and can increase the internal resistance of the battery.

Battery cell

Battery Cell

Smallest individual electro-chemical unit that provides a certain amount of energy which depends on size, chemistry, and usage.

Battery fire

Battery Terminology

Occurs when a battery overheats and causes a thermal runaway, which can result in a self-sustaining fire. Common causes include external short circuits, internal faults, mechanical abuses, poor design, or overcharging.

Battery health

Battery Terminology

A measure of a battery’s current state compared to its initial state. It can be affected by factors like age, number of charge/discharge cycles, extreme temperatures, and overcharging.

Battery lifecycle

Battery Terminology

This term refers to the stages a battery goes through from its creation to its disposal. It includes manufacturing, transportation, usage, maintenance, potential repurposing (like in second-life applications), and recycling or disposal at the end of its useful life.

Battery modeling

Battery Modeling

Battery modeling involves the creation of mathematical representations of lithium-ion batteries using fundamental descriptions from physics, chemistry, and thermodynamics to predict their performance, behavior, and degradation. These models help engineers in various ways, among others are the enhanced design of battery management systems, optimize charging algorithms, and improve overall battery performance.

Battery module

Battery Components

Modules combine 'n' number of cells to one bigger package where n is greater than 1. Usually, modules are the smallest unit of a battery pack that can be replaced during maintenance.

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Battery pack

Battery Components

Battery packs combine 'n' number of modules where n is greater than 1.

Battery performance

Battery Terminology

This term encompasses various aspects of a battery's operation, mainly its electrical and thermal performances, including its capacity (how much charge it can hold), energy density (how much energy it can store in a given volume or weight), power density (how quickly it can deliver energy), charging/discharging rates, efficiency, and lifespan.

Battery recycling

Battery Terminology

The process of reclaiming and reusing materials from spent batteries. Recycling helps reduce the number of batteries sent to landfills and conserves resources.

Battery size

Battery Terminology

Refers to its electrical storage capacity, often measured in Watt-hours (Wh) or Ampere-hours (Ah).

Battery string

Battery Components

This refers to a configuration of multiple battery cells or modules connected together in a series, parallel, or a combination of both to create a battery pack. The purpose of a battery string is to achieve the desired voltage and capacity for a specific application. In series connections, the voltage (V) adds up, while in parallel connections, the capacity (Ah) increases.

Battery swelling

Battery Terminology

Batteries are swelling up when Li ions are moving back and forth between cathode and anode. The swelling is dependent on the electrode chemistries used. Some electrode materials such as silicon expand by more than 300% during the intake of Li. Additionally, battery swelling can occur when gas accumulates inside a lithium-ion battery, causing it to expand. This is especially obvious for pouch cells. The gas generation can result from various factors, including overcharging, high temperatures, and manufacturing defects. Swollen batteries pose a safety risk and should be replaced promptly.

Battery system

Battery Components

Battery systems combine 'n' number of packs where n is greater than or equal to 1.

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Beginning of Life (BoL)

Battery Modeling

The initial state of a battery or system, indicating its performance and capacity before it undergoes any usage or degradation.

Bootstrap resampling

Battery Modeling

This is a statistical technique used to estimate the distribution of a statistic (like the mean or standard deviation) by randomly sampling with replacement from the data set. In this method, numerous samples are taken, each sample is analyzed, and the results are used to form a distribution. This approach is particularly useful when the original dataset is small, as it allows for the estimation of the distribution of a statistic without the need for a large number of original observations. Bootstrap resampling is commonly used in machine learning and data analysis to assess the uncertainty of a model or to improve model accuracy.

C-rate

Battery Terminology

The C-rate is a measure of a battery's charge or discharge rate relative to its capacity. A higher C-rate indicates faster charging or discharging. Batteries with high C-rates can deliver more power but may experience reduced cycle life and increased heat generation.

Calendric aging

Battery Terminology

Refers to the degradation of batteries (capacity fade and resistance increase) over time. This type of aging occurs even when the battery isn’t being charged or discharged. A predominant factor is the evolution of passivation layers.

Capacity

Battery Terminology

Capacity of a cell, electrochemically speaking, is the amount of lithium ions that can be exchanged between the cathode and the anode between the upper cut-off voltage and the lower cut-off voltage. Theoretical values usually differ from the practicably achievable ones, since only a part of the lithium stored in the electrodes is available for the electrochemical reactions. In practice, the capacity is calculated by the integration of the current over time. Additional complexity arises from the fact that cathode and anode potentials change with temperature and hence influence the upper and lower cut-off voltage criteria. Thus, to define the capacity, both the current rate and temperature information are needed. Further, it must be specified if the capacity is measured during charge or during discharge.

Cell manufacturers usually provide a rated capacity value for their cells: Rated capacity means the capacity during discharge, usually measured in ampere-hours, of a cell as measured under predefined specifications. Usually, the cell manufacturer provides information to determine the rated capacity such as temperature, applied current and cut-off voltage. The influence of different parameters on the measurable capacity makes it challenging to compare tests from different parties with the same battery cell. Only if every detail is specified and agreed on, a direct comparison is possible. Therefore, there is not one true capacity, but just various ways to determine the available capacity under certain conditions.

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Cathode

Battery Cell

Electrode in a battery cell in which reduction takes place, meaning the acceptance of electrons. Usually made from metal oxides, an electrically conductive powder and binder material. Battery science and industry agreed to call it the “positive” electrode.

Cell Blow-up

Battery Terminology

A severe failure mode in batteries where a cell physically ruptures, often due to internal pressure build-up or thermal runaway.

Charging

Battery Terminology

This is the process of adding electrical energy to a battery, allowing it to store energy for later use. Charging involves transferring electrons from an external power source into the battery, reversing the chemical reactions that occur during discharging.

Clamping force

Battery Terminology

In the context of batteries, clamping force refers to the pressure applied to keep the components of a battery cell, particularly the electrodes and separator, firmly together. This is crucial for maintaining good electrical contact and efficient ion transport between the electrodes, as well as for the structural integrity of the cell. Inadequate clamping force can lead to increased internal resistance and uneven current distribution, which can significantly affect the performance and lifespan of a battery.

Cloud-based Battery Analytics

Battery Terminology

The use of cloud computing to collect, store, and analyze battery data, enabling remote monitoring and management. Compared to the usual battery management system (BMS), battery analytics software can detect trends and anomalies early to avoid breakdowns. By analyzing historical data, the software gives you deeper insights into relevant KPIs than a BMS, providing a second layer of safety.

Commissioning

Energy storage

This is the process of installing, testing, and confirming that a battery system is functioning as intended. It involves checking the installation, ensuring safety compliance, verifying performance against specifications, and often setting up communication and control systems.

Confidence intervals

Battery Modeling

Confidence intervals are a range of values, derived from the statistical analysis of data, that are believed to encompass the true value of an unknown parameter with a specified level of confidence, typically expressed in percentage terms (like 95% confidence interval). They provide an estimated range of values which is likely to include the parameter of interest and are fundamental in hypothesis testing and regression analysis. For instance, in battery performance studies, a confidence interval can indicate the reliability of the estimated average battery life.

Copper dissolution

Battery Terminology

This occurs when copper from the battery's anode current collector dissolves into the electrolyte under certain conditions, such as deep discharging or high temperatures. This can lead to a reduction in the battery's capacity and lifespan, and in severe cases, internal short-circuiting.

Coulomb

Battery Terminology

The standard unit of electric charge in the International System of Units (SI), equivalent to the charge transferred by a current of one ampere in one second.

Coulomb counting

Battery Modeling

This is a method used to estimate the state of charge (SoC) of a battery. It involves measuring the current flowing into or out of the battery over time and summing these values (a process known as integrating the current). By knowing the total amount of charge that has moved in or out of the battery, one can estimate its current state of charge. However, this method can become inaccurate over time without recalibration, as it doesn't account for factors like efficiency losses or aging effects.

Current

Battery Terminology

A flow of charged electrons or ions, typically measured in Ampere (A). In the context of batteries, it refers to the amount of charge flowing in or out of the battery.

Cycle

Battery Terminology

A cycle is defined as the moment when the cell returns to the starting point after undergoing a charge and discharge process that involved both the upper and lower cut-off voltage limits as defined by the operation. Since except during cell testing (especially cell aging testing), a cycle is rarely seen, the driving profile is often characterized using equivalent full cycles:

Equivalent full cycle (EFC): It is used to classify any cycle or any charge or discharge in terms of the charge throughput of a full cycle. For example, a cycle between 50 and 100% State of charge (SoC) (so starting at 50% SoC, charging to 100% and then discharging to 50% SoC again) is equivalent to 0.5 EFC

Half cycle: The real driving profile can be broken up into a series of half cycles based on different algorithms such as the rain flow algorithm, etc. Classifications for half cycles can be quite specific such as each time the current drops to zero, a half cycle is finished. Or if the SoC signal changes direction.

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Cyclic aging

Battery Terminology

Refers to the degradation of batteries (capacity fade and resistance increase) due to usage. This type of aging occurs when the battery is being charged or discharged. Mechanical strain in the electrode active materials stands out as a significant contributing element.

Cylindrical cell

Battery Cell

Battery cells that have a cylindrical shape and which are the most common cell type in use today. They are widely used in various applications, including power tools and electric vehicles.

DC (Direct Current)

Battery Terminology

An electric current that flows in one direction, used in batteries, electronics, and some renewable energy systems.

DCR (Direct Current Resistance)

Battery Terminology

Is the resistance value calculated as the ratio of the voltage difference before and after a current pulse has been applied to the cell to the current value of the pulse in a defined time period.

Data-driven models

Battery Modeling

Models developed purely from experimental or observational data without necessarily relying on the underlying theoretical mechanisms. Machine learning algorithms are often used in this approach.

Dendrite growth

Battery Terminology

Dendrite growth is a phenomenon observed primarily in lithium-ion batteries, where lithium deposits form spiky structures called dendrites during charging. These dendrites can grow long enough to break through the separator, leading to short circuits. This not only reduces the battery's efficiency and lifespan but also poses significant safety risks, as short circuits can lead to overheating or even fires. Preventing dendrite growth is a key area of research in battery technology.

Depth of discharge (DoD)

Battery Terminology

Depth of Discharge (DoD) is the difference between the upper and lower State of charge (SoC) bounds of a cycle. It is sometimes referred to as cycle depth. Thus, cycling for example, between 10% and 80% SoC results in a DoD of 70% DOD. It is usually expressed as a percentage.

Digital Commissioning

Energy storage

Validate the installation and performance of a system before operation. Digital commissioning of battery energy storage systems can identify manufacturing or installation issues that were not discovered with physical commissioning.

Digital Twin

Battery Modeling

A virtual model of a physical object or system, used for simulation, analysis, and control.

Discharging

Battery Terminology

The process of drawing current from a battery, depleting its stored energy. During discharging, stored chemical energy is converted to electrical energy.

Driving Range

Battery Terminology

The maximum distance a vehicle, especially an electric vehicle, can travel on a full charge under specific conditions.

ESS / BESS / battery storage

Energy storage

ESS stands for Energy Storage System. BESS stands for Battery Energy Storage System. They are systems that store electrical energy using battery technology for use at a later time, often used for grid stabilization, renewable energy integration, and peak shaving.

Electric model

Battery Modeling

An electric model is used to replicate the behavior of a physical battery cell. Often, the electric model uses components from electric circuits to mimic the electric response from batteries, such as resistors, capacitors or inductors. By leveraging an electric model, the electric response of a battery can be predicted based on a predefined input profile. An accurate electric model needs to take effects such as the hysteresis of batteries and also temperature-dependencies of model parameters into account.

Electrical Grid

Energy storage

A network of electrical transmission lines, substations, transformers, and more, that delivers electricity from power plants to consumers.

Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy

Battery Modeling

A technique for characterizing the impedance of electrochemical systems, providing insights into battery health and behavior. It provides detailed information about the internal processes and mechanisms, aiding in the diagnosis of performance issues and the development of more efficient and longer-lasting batteries.

Electrodes

Battery Cell

Thin coatings on either aluminum or copper foil made out of a mix of materials within which the electrochemical reactions take place.

Electrolyte

Battery Cell

The component in the battery which allows charged particles to travel from one electrode to another and blocks the flow of electrons. In conventional batteries, the electrolyte is liquid. In solid-state batteries, the electrolyte is a solid.

Electrolyte decompositon

Battery Terminology

This term refers to the chemical deterioration of the electrolyte in a battery, often caused by factors like overcharging, excessive heat, or impurities. This breakdown can lead to reduced battery efficiency, gas generation, increased internal resistance, and a decrease in overall capacity. Preventing this is crucial for maintaining battery performance and safety.

Electrons

Battery Cell

Electrons are negatively charged subatomic particles that play a key role in electricity. In the context of batteries and circuits, they are the carriers of electric current, moving from the negative to the positive terminal in a circuit.

Electrothermal

Battery Modeling

Pertaining to the combined electrical and thermal properties or processes, often in the context of battery operation and management.

End of life (EoL)

Battery Terminology

End of Life criteria is when the cell is retired from its (first) application, usually a State of health (SoH) of 80% or an increase of the ohmic resistance up to 200% is used for automotive applications. After automotive applications, there might be a second life in stationary applications with different EoL criteria (e.g. 50% SoH) possible.

A remaining capacity of 80% might seem as like an arbitrary choice for retiring the cell from its primary application but it might have its origins in rapid cell degradation going beyond this State of health of the cell. Above 80% of the remaining capacity, the capacity fading and resistance increase is generally observed in a quasi-linear way. After the 80% to 70% crossing, capacity fading and resistance increased behave in a more non-linear way, which makes longer term forecasts more challenging. While the above characteristic parameters have been defined for cells, they are also widely used for higher levels such as for modules, systems and batteries.

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Energy

Battery Terminology

Energy is the total amount of work a lithium-ion battery can perform, usually measured in watt-hours (Wh). It is a product of the battery’s voltage and capacity, determining the duration for which a battery can power a device.

Energy Storage Management System (ESMS)

Energy storage

A system that manages and optimizes the charging, discharging, and overall performance of an energy storage system, ensuring safety, longevity, and efficient operation.

Energy density

Battery Terminology

Energy density is the amount of energy a battery can store per unit volume (volumetric energy density) or weight (gravimetric energy density). Higher energy density batteries can store more energy in a smaller, lighter package, making them desirable for applications such as electric vehicles and portable electronics.

FCR (Frequency Containment Reserve)

Energy storage

A reserve power service that helps maintain the stability of the electrical grid's frequency by quickly adjusting output.

Fast charging

Battery Terminology

Fast charging refers to charging a battery at a higher current or voltage than standard charging rates, reducing the time required to reach a full charge. While fast charging can be convenient, it may generate more heat and stress the battery, potentially affecting its lifespan. There is no defined threshold for classification of fast charging. Some applications are deemed fast charging if full charging is performed within 30 mins, while others only call it fast charging if a full charge is done within 10 to 12 mins.

Flow Battery

Battery Cell Chemistries

A type of rechargeable battery where energy is stored and released by chemical components dissolved in liquids contained within the system.

Frequency regulation/ control

Energy storage

Frequency regulation in the context of power systems refers to the maintenance of the constant frequency of the electrical grid (e.g., 60 Hz in North America or 50 Hz in Europe). This is crucial for the stability and reliability of the grid. Batteries, especially large-scale energy storage systems, can contribute to frequency regulation by quickly absorbing excess power when the frequency is too high or releasing power when the frequency is too low, thus helping to balance supply and demand in real-time.

Graphite

Battery Cell

A form of carbon used as an electrode material in many batteries, known for its electrical conductivity and ability to intercalate lithium ions.

HVAC Component

Battery Components

Parts of the Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning system, significant for battery temperature management.

Heat-transfer-coefficients

Battery Modeling

In the context of batteries, heat-transfer coefficients quantify how efficiently heat can be transferred away from the battery cells. High heat-transfer coefficients are desirable to efficiently dissipate heat and maintain optimal operating temperatures, thereby enhancing battery performance and lifespan.

Hysteresis

Battery Terminology

In the context of batteries, it refers to the different equilibrium potentials (difference in voltage between charging and discharging) at the same state of charge. The hysteresis effect can be very pronounced dependent upon the battery chemistry, requiring very accurate estimation or measurement of the terminal voltage.

IBR (Inverted Based Resources)

Battery Terminology

Energy resources that use inverters to convert DC electricity to AC, enabling integration with the electrical grid.

Imbalanced Battery Cell

Battery Terminology

A condition where cells in a battery pack exhibit varying states of charge, health, or voltage, affecting performance and longevity.

Impedance

Battery Terminology

Contains information about the internal state of a battery and is composed of internal resistance and reactance, which are measured under defined conditions such as AC frequency, state of charge, state of health, and temperature.

Integrators

Energy storage

In the energy sector, integrators refer to systems or companies that combine various energy technologies and services to provide a comprehensive solution. This can include integrating renewable energy sources with traditional power systems, battery storage, and smart grid technologies to improve efficiency, reliability, and sustainability.

Internal resistance

Battery Terminology

Internal resistance in a battery refers to the amount of resistance that the battery's internal components, such as electrodes, electrolyte, and terminals, present to the flow of current within the battery. This resistance causes some of the electrical energy produced by the battery to be converted into heat, reducing the amount of available voltage and current that can be delivered to an external circuit.

Joule

Battery Terminology

The unit of energy in the International System of Units (SI), defined as the energy transferred when one ampere of current passes through a resistance of one ohm for one second.

LCO (Lithium Cobalt Oxide)

Battery Cell Chemistries

LCO is a widely used lithium-ion battery cathode chemistry known for its high energy density and good cycle life. It’s predominantly used in portable electronic devices such as smartphones, laptops, and cameras. It was the initial cell chemistry in the 1990s when Sony commercialized the Li-ion battery.

LFP (Lithium Iron Phosphate)

Battery Cell Chemistries

LFP is a lithium-ion battery cathode chemistry offering high thermal stability, long cycle life, and excellent safety features. It’s commonly used in electric vehicles, grid storage systems, and industrial applications.

LMFP (Lithium Ferro-Manganese Phosphate)

Battery Cell Chemistries

This is a type of cathode material used in lithium-ion batteries. It offers benefits like high thermal stability, safety, and a long cycle life, although it typically has a lower energy density compared to other cathode materials like NMC (Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide).

LMO (Lithium Manganese Oxide)

Battery Cell Chemistries

LMO is a lithium-ion battery cathode chemistry that provides high power output and good thermal stability. It’s used in power tools, electric bikes, and some electric vehicles.

LTO (Lithium Titanate)

Battery Cell Chemistries

LTO is a lithium-ion battery anode chemistry known for its extremely fast charging capabilities, long cycle life, and high safety. It’s used in applications that require rapid charging and discharging, such as electric buses and grid storage.

Lithium plating

Battery Terminology

Lithium plating is a phenomenon that occurs in lithium-ion batteries when lithium ions are deposited as metallic lithium onto the anode (typically made of graphite) instead of being intercalated or inserted between the anode’s carbon layers.

This usually occurs under specific conditions like fast charging, charging at low temperatures, or when the cell is already at a high state of charge. Over time, this can create dendritic structures that may penetrate the separator, posing a risk of short-circuiting the battery. This not only reduces the battery’s life but also increases safety risks, as internal shorts can lead to thermal runaway and potential fires or explosions.

Lithium-ion battery

Battery Cell Chemistries

A type of rechargeable battery in which lithium ions move from the negative electrode (anode) to the positive electrode (cathode) during discharging and back again during charging .They are commonly used in mobile phones, laptops, electric vehicles, and grid-scale energy storage due to their comparatively high energy density and lightweight characteristics.

Loss of active anode material (LAMne)

Battery Terminology

LAMne describes the degradation or consumption of the active material within the anode of a battery. For many lithium-ion batteries, graphite is the primary active material in the anode. Its layered structure allows for the intercalation of lithium ions. The loss of active anode material directly impacts the battery's capacity and overall cycle life. As the graphite is consumed, the battery's ability to store energy diminishes, leading to a decrease in its overall performance and efficiency.

Loss of active cathode material (LAMpe)

Battery Terminology

LAMpe describes the degradation or consumption of the active material within the cathode of a battery. Several materials are used as active cathode materials in lithium-ion batteries. Common examples include Lithium Cobalt Oxide (LCO), Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP), and Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (NMC). The loss of active cathode material results in reduced energy storage capacity of the battery. As these materials degrade, the overall energy density of the battery diminishes, leading to shorter usable battery life and decreased performance.

Loss of electrical contact

Battery Terminology

In battery cells, this refers to the disruption of the electrical connection within the cell, which can occur due to various reasons such as physical degradation of electrode materials, breakdown of the conductive network, or mechanical stresses. This loss impedes the efficient flow of electrons, crucial for battery operation, leading to reduced performance, efficiency, and sometimes complete failure of the battery cell.

Loss of lithium inventory (LLI)

Battery Terminology

Refers to the irreversible loss of lithium ions in a battery, which can result from side reactions such as the formation of the solid-electrolyte interphase. This loss leads to a reduction of the overall capacity of a battery.

Machine learning model

Battery Modeling

A machine learning model is an algorithmic structure that, based on input data, makes predictions or decisions, identifying patterns or making decisions with minimal human intervention. These models can range from simple linear regression to complex neural networks. They are trained on a set of data (training dataset) to learn from the properties of the data and then used to make predictions on new, unseen data. Machine learning models have a wide range of applications, including image and speech recognition, medical diagnosis, stock market trading, and battery performance prediction.

Malfunctions

Battery Terminology

Failures in a system or device, such as a battery, that prevent it from operating as intended.

NCA (Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide)

Battery Cell Chemistries

NCA is a high-performance lithium-ion battery cathode chemistry known for its high energy density, long cycle life, and fast charging capabilities. It’s commonly used in electric vehicles, such as Tesla models, and portable electronics.

NFPA 885

Energy storage

National Fire Protection Association standards that provide safety guidelines for the installation of stationary energy storage systems. It covers requirements for system design, installation, ventilation, and maintenance, ensuring the safety of both the public and first responders.

NMC (Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide)

Battery Cell Chemistries

NMC is a popular lithium-ion battery cathode chemistry, offering a high energy density, good thermal stability, and relatively low cost. It’s widely used in electric vehicles, portable electronics, and grid storage applications. First NMC cathodes contained the same amount of nickel (Ni), manganese (Mn) and cobalt (Co) and were called NMC111 or NMC333. Recent developments increased the amount of Ni and reduced the Mn and Co content leading to relations such as 8 portions of Ni to 1 portion of Mn and Co, also called NMC811.

Nominal voltage

Battery Terminology

Nominal voltage is the average voltage at which a battery operates during its discharge cycle. It is a key parameter for determining the battery's compatibility with devices and applications. For lithium-ion batteries, the nominal voltage typically ranges between 3.3V and 3.8V, depending on the cell chemistry.

Non-linear Discharge Characteristics

Battery Terminology

The property of a battery that causes its discharge behavior to vary non-linearly with different loads and conditions.

OCV aging

Battery Terminology

OCV aging refers to the decline or shift in the open circuit voltage of a battery over its lifespan. This change in OCV is due to the irreversible chemical and physical changes within the battery as it ages. Factors contributing to OCV aging include loss of active materials, formation and growth of the solid-electrolyte interface (SEI), and other degradation mechanisms. As the battery ages, its maximum and minimum OCV values can shift, affecting its total usable capacity. A shift in OCV values can make state of charge estimation more challenging, potentially leading to reduced battery performance and lifespan.

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